Difference between revisions of "Expansion tectonics"

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Irrespective of the infancy of this solar wind-related observational data and causal mechanism for an increase in Earth mass it is considered that there is more than enough justification to at least consider that the mass and radius of the Earth may in fact be increasing over time and hence begs the question as to what would happen to plate tectonics on an increasing radius Earth model? We can no longer justify rejection of this increasing Earth mass and radius proposal in favour of a constant radius Earth model without at least scientifically testing this new proposal using modern global observational data. Validation of this new proposal would then constitute a paradigm shift in conventional Plate Tectonic thinking.
 
Irrespective of the infancy of this solar wind-related observational data and causal mechanism for an increase in Earth mass it is considered that there is more than enough justification to at least consider that the mass and radius of the Earth may in fact be increasing over time and hence begs the question as to what would happen to plate tectonics on an increasing radius Earth model? We can no longer justify rejection of this increasing Earth mass and radius proposal in favour of a constant radius Earth model without at least scientifically testing this new proposal using modern global observational data. Validation of this new proposal would then constitute a paradigm shift in conventional Plate Tectonic thinking.
  
== Possible Mechanisms for Expansion and Mass Increase ==
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== Proposed Causal Mechanism ==
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The fundamental problem that scientists and the general public have when modelling tectonic data on an increasing radius Expansion Tectonic Earth is comprehending where did the huge volume of material making up the seafloor crusts and underlying mantle go to when moving back in time in order to reassemble the continents? And, more importantly, where does this huge volume of material come from when moving forward in time? From this perceived problem, historically it would seem that it doesn’t matter how unique or empirical the constructed models or data modelling are, if an explanation for these observed phenomena cannot be given to the satisfaction of scientists and the general public alike then all increasing Earth radius theories must remain rejected in favour of a constant radius Earth theory.
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It is fair to then ask the very pertinent question that if an acceptable causal mechanism is proposed, as palaeomagnetics did for the rejected continental drift theory during the 1950s, do we seriously consider this mechanism, test the new proposal in light of modern tectonic observational data, accept the empirical evidence in support of this proposal, and revise the current plate tectonic theory? Or do we continue to reject the observational data and acceptable mechanism and instead remain supportive of an outdated theory based on a pre-assumed mathematically constrained constant Earth radius premise?
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In strong contrast to what was available 50 years ago when the historical Expanding Earth theory was initially rejected, the influence of charged solar wind-related particles emanating from the Sun on the near Earth environment has only been available since the Cluster II satellites were launched by the European Space Agency in year 2000. The new space-based observational data subsequently collected has highlighted the introduction of large quantities of solar wind-related electrons and protons into the Earth, propelled by the Earth’s magnetic field, which begs the question as to what is happening to these particles—the building blocks of all matter on Earth—once they enter the Earth?
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The proposed causal mechanism for an increase in Earth mass and radius over time is based on, but not necessarily constrained to, the input of charged solar wind related electrons and protons originating from the Sun (Eichler, 2011; Maxlow, 2014). It is envisaged that magnetically charged electrons and protons enter the Earth’s magnetosphere and lower terrestrial layers primarily at the polar auroral zones and, to a lesser extent, as random lightning strikes during electrical storms. These magnetically charged particles are further attracted by conduction to the strongly magnetic core-mantle region of the Earth. The elevated core-mantle temperatures and pressures present enable the various particles to dissipate and recombine via nucleosynthesis as new matter within the upper core or lower mantle regions, in particular within the 200 to 300 kilometres thick D” region located at the base of the mantle directly above the core-mantle boundary.
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It is envisaged that new matter is synthesised mainly within the reactive upper core or D” region of the lower mantle which in turn results in an increase in Earth mass. This growth of new matter and increase in mass causes the mantle to increase in volume. This increase in volume is then transferred to the Earth’s outer surface crust via two primary mechanisms.
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* Firstly, as an increase in Earth radius and;
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* Secondly, as laterally-directed crustal extension which is presently occurring on the surface of the Earth as extension along the full length of the mid-ocean-rift zones, within continental sedimentary basins, and within more localised mantle plume and igneous complex regions (Figure 23).
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Figure 23 A schematic cross-section of the present-day Earth highlighting the influence of charged electrons and protons entering the Earth resulting in an increase in mass and radius over time (Maxlow, 2014).
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The long-term potential effects of this causal process on the ancient Earth is summarised in Figure 24 showing a schematic cross section of three small Earth models: the Cambrian (around 540 million years ago), the Permian (around 250 million years ago), plus the present-day model repeated. These models are all to the same scale and based on the geological small Earth modeling studies.
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The schematic models mark times of significant changes to crustal development. These changes include changes to the aerial distribution of ancient sedimentary basins and continental seas during ongoing crustal extension throughout the Palaeozoic Era, plus breakup of the Pangaean supercontinent and formation of the modern continents and oceans during the late-Permian.
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Figure 23 A schematic cross-section of the Cambrian, Permian and present-day Earth highlighting the effects of an Earth increasing its mass and radius over time. Core and mantle dimensions for the Permian and Cambrian models remain speculative only.
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Prior to the Cambrian model is the 3.5 billion year interval of time known as the Precambrian Eon, which represents around 85 percent of known geological history. The rate of change in Earth mass, surface area, and radius during this extended period of time was extremely small. During that time, it is envisaged that matter formation within the primitive lower mantle and upper core was at an early stage of development, and the increase in Earth radius amounted to microns increasing to millimetres per annum. It is further envisaged that the limited size of the Precambrian Earth, along with the possibility of a much reduced magnetic field, may have limited the amount of solar particles entering the Earth hence limited the rate of increase in mass and radius over time.
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The approximately 310 million year time interval between the beginning of the Cambrian to the end of the Permian Periods is the Palaeozoic Era and on an increasing radius Earth this era represents a time when Earth mass, radius and surface area gradually increased from a steady to steadily accelerating rate of change. Again, this increasing rate of change in mass and radius may have been the result of an increasing Earth magnetic field intensity, as well as increased changes to output of charged solar particles from the Sun.
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The end of the Permian Period is marked by a breakup of the Pangaean supercontinent to form the modern continents and opening of the modern oceans. The following Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras represent a time of dispersion of the modern continents, ongoing opening of the modern oceans, and a rapidly accelerating rate of change in Earth mass, radius, and surface curvature.
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On small Earth models, for the first 3,750 million years of Earth history—to the end of the Permian Period 250 million years ago—all continental crusts remained united to form a single supercontinental landmass encompassing the entire ancient Earth. This supercontinental landmass was, in turn, partly covered by a network of relatively shallow continental seas. During this extended length of time the overall crustal extension and increase in surface area amounted to microns, increasing to tens of millimetres per annum spread over the entire surface area of the ancient Earth.
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During these pre-Permian times volumetric mantle growth was manifested at surface as an increase in surface area within an interconnected network of crustal weakness—sedimentary basins and orogenic zones. This network was first established during the early-Archaean Eon and progressively extended in surficial area over time. Continental crustal extension was focussed within this network of crustal weakness initiating formation of low-lying sedimentary basins and relatively shallow seas. This crustal extension continued unabated until the late-Permian Period when the ability of the crust to continue to stretch and extend was physically exceeded.
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During the late-Permian Period the ability for the crusts to stretch and extend within the Pangaean supercontinental crusts—shown as green coloured crusts on the Permian schematic model—was exceeded and rupturing of the Pangaean supercontinent was initiated. The Pangaean supercontinental crusts then ruptured and broke apart to form the modern continents and the modern oceans. The outcomes and growth history of this breakup and opening process, extending from the early-Jurassic to the present-day, is now preserved within the seafloor crustal geology shown in modern publications, such as the Geological Map of the World (CGMW & UNESCO, 1990).
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On an increasing Earth radius model all geological phenomena now seen at surface, such as basin formation, folding, faulting, orogenesis, magmatic intrusion, mountain formation, crustal extension, continental break-up and so on, are ultimately caused by the volumetric growth in Earth mass and radius over time. These phenomena are particularly related to changes in relief of surface curvature of continental and seafloor crusts as a direct result of the subsequent increase in Earth radius and surface area over time.
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
 
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Revision as of 17:15, 15 March 2017

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Wikipedia Dispute: wikipedia:Expanding earth

This Natural Philosophy wiki page disputes content found on Wikipedia page wikipedia:Expanding earth


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The Crustal Age map from NOAA is considered by expansion tectonics as the most important geological map in modern geology

Expansion Tectonics is a geology-based tectonic theory that is used to describe, model, and reconstruct the large-scale evolution and assemblage of Earths tectonic plates on an Earth that has been slowly gaining in size and mass over billions of years. This theory, and associated modelling studies, extends in time from the early-Archaean–some 4,000 million years ago–through to the present day and is readily extrapolated to the future. Modelling studies demonstrate that changing configurations of the supercontinents, breakup of the Pangaean supercontinent, formation of the Earth’s modern continents, as well as sympathetic opening of each of the modern oceans is progressive, predictive, and evolutionary.

Introduction

Expansion Tectonic theory builds on the largely historical Expanding Earth theory which was initially developed during the 19th and first few decades of the 20th century. This historical theory was extensively promoted by the Emeritus Professor Samuel Warren Carey of the University of Tasmania during the 1950s, and was modeled by Klaus Vogel of East Germany and Jan Koziar of the Wroclaw University, Poland during the 1980s. The theory was unceremoniously rejected by science during the mid-1960s in favour of plate tectonics, based on limited and inconclusive palaeomagnetic studies of ancient Earth radius. Since that time there has been a considerable amount of modern global observational data collected from all fields of the Earth sciences which are now available to thoroughly test and evaluate all tectonic theories.

Apart from its implicit assumption of a constant radius Earth, there is very little data in conventional plate tectonics that is incompatible with the largely historical Expanding Earth theory, and vice versa. It is the same global data gathered about the same Earth—just interpreted differently. Rather than artificially constraining modern plate tectonic observational data and plate tectonic thinking to a constant-sized Earth—the current dogma—modern scientific methodology insists that this new global observational data be tested to see if the data, and hence the basis of plate tectonic theory, are not better suited to an increasing radius Earth scenario.

The historical terms Earth Expansion, Expanding Earth, and similarly Growing Earth, refer to changes to the shape and size of the Earth, as well as motions of the various crusts on an Earth whose surface area increases with time in sympathy with an increase in Earth mass and radius. These terms are synonymous but now largely unpopular. To avoid confusion with these redundant theories Expansion Tectonics is used to encompass each of these terms in relation to modern observational evidence. The term Expansion Tectonics was first introduced in 1995 by Australian geologist Dr James Maxlow and subsequent quantification of this new science is based on an extensive range of modern global tectonic data.

Why Expansion Tectonics

It is unfortunate that science does not encourage research into this alternative proposal whereby the increase in surface areas of all ocean crusts and movement of the continents is a direct result of an increase in Earth mass and radius over time. Because of this lack of encouragement, rejection of the historical Expanding Earth theory in favor of plate tectonics should not be perceived as rejection because the theory was wrong, it is only the proffered historical mechanisms behind the theory that may have been lacking in credibility. Investigating the extensive range of modern global observational data on anything other than a constant radius Earth model has never been done before. Because of this lack of inquiry, scientists and industry have been deprived of a valuable scientific basis to thoroughly test and independently evaluate the merits of this modern global data. The reason why this investigation and modelling has not been done before is simply because science has been stereotyped into firmly believing that Earth radius has always been the same size as it is today, based originally on very tenuous geophysical evidence. Because of this insistence, conventional plate tectonics then considers that continental and seafloor crustal development has been a random, non-predictive, and somewhat catastrophic process. It is unfortunate that science is firmly conditioned into accepting this belief and insistence, as well as accepting any shortfalls this insistence imposes on the global data, without further inquiry.

Many scientists have demonstrated that an Earth increasing its size over time is perfectly feasible and provides a better explanation for many geologic observations than does a fixed-radius Earth model. Researchers, such as Lindeman 1927, Hilgenberg 1933, Brösske 1962, Barnett 1962, Dearnley 1965, Owen 1976, Shields 1979, Schmidt and Embleton 1981, Vogel 1983, Luckett 1990s, Scalera 1988, Maxlow 1995, 2001, and Adams 2000s, have each constructed models of the ancient Earth and shown that all of the present-day continents can be neatly assembled together on a fully enclosed smaller radius Pangaean supercontinental Earth some 250 million years ago.

In contrast to conventional plate tectonic reconstructions of past supercontinental assemblages, modern global geological mapping of the oceans and continents is used exclusively in Expansion Tectonic studies to recreate and model the entire 4,000 million years of Earth’s known geological history. Spherical small Earth models constructed by Dr James Maxlow represent accurate models of precise continental and seafloor crustal plate assemblages extending from the early-Archaean to 5 million years into the future. This global geological mapping has only been available since 1990, well after conventional plate tectonics and palaeomagnetics were first established, and its use represents a unique means to accurately constrain and reconstruct past geological plate assemblages independently of conventional palaeomagnetic apparent-polar-wander constraints.

Dr Maxlow considers that the advantages and benefits of using modern global geological mapping to constrain plate assemblages for the entire history of the Earth are immeasurable. The application of geological crustal assemblages to the geosciences is further limited only by ongoing innovation and imagination. Furthermore, Expansion Tectonic small Earth reconstructions are uniquely relevant to science and industry by providing models that are accurate enough to know precisely where a particular research project, mineral discovery, climate change indicator, field project, fossil or mineral find was located on the ancient Earth at any moment in time.

Evidence

When presenting Expansion Tectonics a number of very valid and pertinent questions invariably arise which must be addressed. In doing so, however, it must be remembered Expansion Tectonics is based solely on the best explanation of existing empirical geological evidence. It is not a theory seeking physical support. It is rather a concept proposed which best fits all existing physical geologic data in a much superior manner than does the Plate Tectonic approach. To some extent it’s like a laboratory experiment wherein an unexpected observation is made that is not explained using existing physics. It then begs for extended theoretical models to explain the newly discovered physical facts.

Gigantism

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The diminishing gigantism for land animals during the past 150 million years [1]

The presence of gigantic plants and animals in ancient history can be explained by a smaller earth. Dinosaur size grew to extremes but with time, the largest land animals have diminished in size over the millions of years. Mechanical engineer Stephen Hurrell has plotted the largest land animals since the age of the dinosaurs and there is a definite reduction in size that could be explained by a smaller, less massive earth.

Ancient Magnet Poles

The published ancient magnetic pole information (the location of ancient magnetic poles established from measuring the remnant magnetism in iron-rich rocks) in particular provides conclusive evidence in support of Expansion Tectonics. When this magnetic pole data is plotted on Expansion Tectonic models it demonstrates that all pole data plot as diametrically opposed north and south poles for each model.

These models show that the ancient North Pole was located in eastern Mongolia-China throughout the Precambrian and Paleozoic Eras. As the continents slowly migrated south, during subsequent increase in Earth radius, there was an apparent northward polar wander through Siberia to its present location within the Arctic Ocean. Similarly, the ancient Precambrian and Paleozoic South Pole was located in west central Africa, and, as the continents slowly migrated north, there was an apparent southward polar wander along the South American and West African coastlines to its present location in Antarctica.

The locations of these magnetic poles, as well as the derived ancient equators, independently confirm the model reconstructions shown in Figure 3 and again suggest that Expansion Tectonics is indeed a viable process.

Ancient Geography

The ancient geography of the Earth forms the basis for defining the inter-relationships of exposed continents, intervening seaways, mountains and crustal movements, and enables the conventional Pangaea, Gondwana, Laurentia, Baltica, Laurussia and Rodinia supercontinents to be quantified on an Expansion Tectonic Earth. The ancient coastlines, when plotted on Expansion Tectonic models, show that large Panthallassa, Tethys and Iapetus Oceans are not required during reconstruction. This is because on an Expansion Tectonic Earth all modern oceans are removed and continents are assembled as a single continental crust. These inferred oceans are instead replaced by smaller Panthallassa, Tethys and Iapetus Seas located on or between the ancient continents.

The early Panthallassa and Iapetus Seas developed during the Early Permian to Early Jurassic periods (260 to 165 million years ago) and initiated as shallow sedimentary basins within the present north west Pacific and North Atlantic Ocean regions respectively. These then progressively opened and extended throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras as the modern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. In contrast, the Tethys Sea had its origins during the Early Precambrian Era as a continental sea located within what is now Europe and Asia. This sea then progressively enlarged and extended in area during the Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras during crustal extension and subsequent opening of the modern oceans.

Changes in sea-level on an Expansion Tectonic Earth is then shown to occur in response to climatic change, as well as a shift in the distribution of continental seas, to crustal movements, mountain building, erosion, opening of the post-Permian modern oceans and production of new water at the mid-ocean-ridges. These changes all modified the ancient coastal outlines and resulted in a change in the exposed continental land areas. This is confirmed by the distribution of climate-dependant sedimentary rocks such as limestone reefs, and the distribution of climate-dependant marine and terrestrial fossil species. Reconstructions of the conventional Pangaea, Gondwana and Rodinia supercontinents and smaller sub-continents on an Expansion Tectonic Earth demonstrate that, instead of being the result of random dispersion-amalgamation or collisional events, each continental assemblage is progressive, and represents an evolutionary crustal-forming process. The distinguishing feature of continents constructed on each Expansion Tectonic model is the inter-relationship of continental sedimentary basins, the network of continental seas and network of crustal movements. The variation of each of these in time has resulted in changes to the distribution of exposed continental land. Supercontinent configuration is then defined by a progressive extension of continental sedimentary basins, by ongoing crustal movements, and changes in sea-levels as the modern oceans opened and rapidly increased in area to the present-day.

Ancient Biogeography

On an Expansion Tectonic Earth the locations of fossilized fauna and flora can be used to illustrate their distribution in relation to the ancient lands and seas, and once again to confirm the established climatic zones as well as the poles and equator. The distribution of various marine fauna, such as the Cambrian and Ordovician trilobites for instance, on an Expansion Tectonic Earth demonstrates the ease and simplification of migration routes and their development during the Palaeozoic Era. Barriers to the migration of trilobites, as well as other related species on an Expansion Tectonic Earth are then simply seen as limited to deep marine restrictions and, to a limited extent, on latitude and climate extremes.

Triassic to Cretaceous dinosaurs, when plotted on Expansion Tectonic Earth models show dinosaur distributions are clustered within three distinct provinces, which coincide with the distribution of ancestral Permian reptiles; their ancient ancestors. These include distributions clustered in the European to Mediterranean region, distributions clustered in central and eastern North America and, distributions clustered in adjacent South Africa and southern South American regions, with links to India. Isolated related distributions also occur in east Australia, south China, and western South America.

The distribution of dinosaurs and ancestral Permian reptiles on an Expansion Tectonic Earth demonstrates the close links between Permian, Triassic and Jurassic species. This link was then disrupted during the early Permian during the initiation of continental break-up, and similarly during the Cretaceous as the various seas merged and sea levels began to rise. As the continents progressively broke up and dispersed there was a marked disruption of established climatic zones, as well as the feeding habitats and migration routes of each endemic species.

The extinction of the dinosaurs is a contentious issue. On an Expansion Tectonic Earth the Cretaceous period coincides with a period of enlargement of continental seas accompanied by a rise in sea-level, an increase in the size of the modern oceans and progressive disruption to climate. Sea levels peaked on the continents during the Late Cretaceous followed by a rapid draining of continental seas as the modern oceans continued to open.

Expansion Tectonic Earth models suggest there may have been two or more separate oceans existing during the Mesozoic era, with the possibility of separate sea levels. Rifting and merging of these oceans coincides precisely with faunal and floral extinction events at the end of both the Triassic and Cretaceous periods. This suggests the cause of the dinosaur extinction, which incidentally occurred over a period of 8 to 10 million years, may be linked with periods of relatively rapid sea level change some 65 million years ago, rather than a speculated asteroidal impact event as currently proposed. The ancient Permian Glossopteris fern is a common fossil in coals throughout the southern hemisphere and has traditionally been used to define the ancient Gondwana supercontinent. The known distribution of Glossopteris ferns is centred on localities in South Africa and adjacent India. During the Permian period East Antarctica straddled the equator adjacent to South Africa, which was surrounded by occurrences of Glossopteris flora in Australia, West Antarctica and India, suggesting Glossopteris flora may have also been extensive beneath the present East Antarctica ice-cap.

The distribution of Permian Glossopteris ferns, when plotted on Expansion Tectonic models, straddles the ancient equator and ranges from high-northern to high-southern latitudes. This suggests Glossopteris ferns were tropical to cool temperate species, confirmed by the fossil evidence, which shows a Gondwana climate commencing with an ice-age and passing through a cold, but wet temperate to warm temperate climate during the Late Paleozoic Era.

These ancient biogeographic examples, while limited, briefly illustrate the ease and simplification of migration and development of all faunal and floral species on an Expansion Tectonic Earth. The inter-relationships of global and provincial distributions are then intimately maintained without the need for complex conventional continental assemblage-dispersal requirements.

During continental break-up and opening of the modern oceans on an Expansion Tectonic Earth, the distributions of species and migration routes were disrupted, forcing species endemic to the various regions to interact, extend their boundaries, fragment or simply become extinct with time. The timing of ocean development in many of these areas is also reflected in the changes in sea-level, facilitating marine faunal migration by extending and expanding immigration routes and moderating climatic differences.

Ancient Climate

The ancient climate on Expansion Tectonic Earth models can be investigated by plotting the distribution of selected climate-dependant rocks and comparing the distribution patterns with the location of established ancient poles and equators. Correlation of coal swamps, thick sandstone sequences and glacial rocks are excellent indicators of wet climates, while dry climates are indicated by evaporates, such as salt deposits, and equatorial regions by limestone reefs.

The glacial record shows four major glacial eras, including the Early Proterozoic Era, the Late Proterozoic Era, the Early and Late Paleozoic Era and the Late Cenozoic Era. The distribution of glacial deposits on an Expansion Tectonic Earth is also useful in checking the location of established magnetic poles and equators plotted from magnetic data. The distribution of many of these Precambrian marine glacial deposits, many of which occur in conjunction with equatorial limestone and iron-rich rocks, is an enigma for Plate Tectonic reconstructions. In contrast, on an Expansion Tectonic Earth the relatively short pole to equator distances existing during this time allowed sea-ice to readily float into equatorial regions, depositing glacial rock debris amongst the existing warm climatic rocks as it melted.

The distribution of Early and Late Paleozoic glacial deposits coincides with a South Pole located in west central Africa, with isolated mountainous ice-centres located in Europe, Australia and South America. A northward shift in climate zonation and an absence of a permanent north polar ice-cap is a prominent feature of glacial, carbonate and coal distributions at that time. This northward shift suggests an Earth rotational axis, inclined to the pole of the ecliptic, was well established by the beginning of the Paleozoic Era and has remained at a similar inclination to the present-day.

The distribution of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic oil and gas resources coincides with the development of major continental and marginal basin settings. A broad zonation of deposits is evident from this distribution which straddles the established ancient equator and extends from low-southern to mid-northern latitudes. This distribution again suggests a northward shift in climatic zonation.

When viewed in context with global and local sea-level changes, oil and gas development coincides with periods of rising sea-levels and maximum surficial areas of continental seas. The Cretaceous in particular coincides with a period of post-Late Paleozoic glacial melting, a rapid opening of the modern oceans, generally warm climatic conditions and rapid biotic diversification.

The Early to Late Cretaceous distribution of coal shows two broad temperate belts located north and south of the ancient equator. On an Expansion Tectonic Earth a latitudinal shift in coal deposition through time is reflected in the rapid opening of each of the modern oceans, and similarly in the northward migration of continents during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras. The predominance of coal deposits in the northern hemisphere is here attributed to the greater extent of landmass influencing rainfall and to the extent of remnant continental basins suitable for coal formation.

The distribution of all latitude dependent rocks on Expansion Tectonic Earth models is shown to coincide precisely with the ancient equators established from magnetic pole data. In each case a distinct latitudinal zonation paralleling the palaeoequator is evident, and a distinct northward shift in climatic zonation consistently suggests that an inclined Earth rotational axis, inclined to the pole of the ecliptic, was well established during the Palaeozoic persisting to the Recent.

History

During the 19th and 20th centuries there were a number of independent thinkers who considered opening of the oceans could be attributed to an increase in Earth radius. In 1859, Alfred W. Drayson published his book “The Earth We Inhabit: Its past, present, and probable future” in which he speculated that the Earth had undergone an “expansion” over time. In 1888, Yarkovski was the first to postulate a growth of the Earth mass. Similarly, Roberto Mantovani in 1889, and again in 1909, published a theory of “...earth expansion and continental drift.” In this theory Mantovani considered that a closed continent covered the entire surface on a smaller radius Earth. He suggested that “...thermal expansion led to volcanic activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents.” These continents then drifted away from each other because of further “expansion” at the “rip-zones” where the oceans currently lie.

The concept of an Expanding Earth was further advanced by Halm (1935), Keindl (1940), Egyed (1956), Carey (1958), and Heezen (1959, 1960), developed primarily in the German and Russian literature. This also included the pioneering work and publications of Lindemann in 1927, small Earth modelling by Ott Christoph Hilgenberg during the 1930s, S. Warren Carey during the 1950s to late 1990s, Jan Koziar during the 1980s, small Earth modelling by Klaus Vogel during the 1980s and 1990s, and formal research into Expansion Tectonics by Dr James Maxlow during the 1990s and 2000s.

What should be noted is that each of these researchers have shown that, like Wegener and others had suggested for the Atlantic Ocean, if each of the oceans were removed and the remaining continents were physically fitted together they will neatly envelope the Earth with continental crust on a small Earth globe at some 50 to 55 percent of its present size. This coincidence led both Hilgenberg (1933) and Vogel (1983), and similarly Carey (1958) from his early Continental Drift studies and Koziar (1980) from his extensive mathematical and crustal modelling studies, to come to similar conclusions that “terrestrial expansion has brought about the splitting and gradual dispersal of continents as they moved radially outwards during geological time.”

Alfred Wegener

In 1915, Alfred Wegener, a German polar researcher, physicist, and meteorologist, was making serious arguments for the idea of Continental Drift in the first edition of his book, “Die entstehung der kontinente und ozeane” [The Origin of Continents and Oceans]. In his book, as did mapmakers before him, he noted how the shape of the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa looked as if they were once joined. When Wegener initially presented his arguments for the idea of Continental Drift he became the first to gather significant fossil and geological evidence to support his simple observation for the breakup and subsequent movement of the continents through time. From these beginnings, Wegener went further to suggest that the present continents once formed a single land mass—later called Pangaea. This land mass was inferred by Wegener to have subsequently broken up and drifted apart, “...thus releasing the continents from the Earth’s mantle.” Wegener likened this too "...icebergs of low density granite floating on a sea of denser basalt". At that time Wegener’s ideas were not taken seriously by most geologists or scientists alike. They rightly pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for Continental Drift. Without detailed evidence, or a force sufficient to drive the movement, the theory was subsequently rejected for over 50 years: ...the Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around the surface of the Earth. Unfortunately, Wegener could not explain the force that drove Continental Drift and vindication for his efforts did not come until well after his untimely death. Other responses were less than sympathetic, including: “Utter damned rot” (the then President of the American Philosophical Society). “If we are to believe this hypothesis we must forget everything we learned in the last seventy years and start all over again” (Thomas Chamberlin). “Anyone who valued his reputation or scientific sanity would never dare support such a theory” (a British geologist).

Although Continental Drift was initially rejected for many years, when Wegener introduced his theory he did, in fact, set in motion a completely new train of thinking and speculation about the origin of our continents and oceans. As Wegener correctly promoted, the fit of the Americas against Africa and Europe was real and had to be explained. Time has, of course, since shown that it was only the mechanism behind Continental Drift that was difficult to explain, not the actual fit of the continents. Since then, with changing ideas about the Earth, and also a name change, Wegener’s theory of Continental Drift is now credited with having given rise to the modern theory of Plate Tectonics. Most people have come to accept plate tectonic theory without question and without prior concern for the considerable amount of initial and still relevant rejection of Continental Drift.

Sam Warren Carey

In researching and promoting the concept of Continental Drift during the 1950s the late Professor S. W. Carey, Emeritus Professor of geology at the University of Tasmania, made a scale model of the present-day Earth in order to investigate the potential fit of the continents during closure of each of the oceans. In addition to the Atlantic Ocean, his investigation was extended to also consider fitting the various continents together within the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is important to mention that Carey made an early observation that the trans-Atlantic fit was not as good a fit as Wegener and others had claimed. His comments and conclusions from this research are reproduced as follows:

“At an early stage in my investigations I went to some pains to ensure that I compared and transferred shapes and sizes of the continental blocks accurately. I have spent tedious years plotting large oblique stereographic projections about diverse centres not only for Africa and South America but for every piece of the Earth’s surface. I combined this with spherical tracings from the globe, working on a spherical table. The reward for this zeal for accuracy was frustration. Again and again over the years I have assembled Pangaea but could never attain a whole Pangaea. I could make satisfactory sketches like Wegener’s classic assembly, but I could never put it all together on the globe, or a rigorous projection. I could reconstruct satisfactorily any sector I might choose but never the whole. If I started from the assembly of South America…by the time I reached Indonesia there was a yawning gulf to Australia, although I felt sure from the oroclines that Indonesia and Australia belonged together...If I started from Australia and Indonesia I had no hope of closing the Arctic Sphenochasm [where the split occurred]…, which I was convinced was basically correct...I was painfully aware that there was a crucial link missing from the global synthesis. I was tempted to abandon the quantitative assembly and resort to sketches which would show every block related as I inferred they should be, even though I knew I could not bring them together that way with the rigour I sought.”

“But in the end the rigorous approach has paid off. For it has revealed a discrepancy which had not been apparent. It was not my method that was at fault, but my assumption that the earth of Pangaea was the same size as the earth of today.” From this research Carey conclude that…“The assembly of Pangaea is not possible on the earth of the present radius, but on a smaller globe…these difficulties vanish.” Regardless of subsequent progress made in plate tectonics since Carey’s initial Continental Drift modelling studies, this conundrum still remains unrecognized and unresolved. The assemblage of Pangaea is still not possible on an Earth of the present-day radius without having to resort to using sketches of crustal fragments in order to adhere to a constant Earth radius insistence.

Historical Small Earth Modelling

Small Earth models of the Earth are fundamental to understanding what Expansion Tectonics has to offer to tectonics. The main researchers into small Earth plate modelling primarily include: Hilgenberg, Vogel, and Maxlow, with lesser researchers including: Brösske (1962), Barnett (1962, 1969), Creer (1965), Dearnley (1965), Shields (1979, 1983), Owen (1976, 1983), Schmidt and Embleton (1981), Neiman (1984, 1990), Perry (in Carey, 1986), Scalera (1988), Adams, (2000), and Luckert, (2004).

Although there is extensive literature on the subject of Earth expansion, the published models represent essentially the sum-total from which Earth Expansion theory has been judged in the past. The historical models in particular were developed, and the majority conceived, prior to or during the early stages of investigation into sea-floor spreading, and prior to a complete and accurate geological and geochronological coverage of the ocean basins. The reconstruction of continents on historical unconstrained small Earth models all suffered from a lack of precise cartographic methods and quantitative constraint on both ancient Earth radius and time.

Despite the crude reconstruction method used by Barnett he noted that, "it is difficult to believe that chance alone can explain this fitting together of the continental margins". This, in effect, has been the driving force behind advocates of Earth Expansion, the fact that all of the continents can be convincingly reconstructed onto smaller globes. Creer also noted that, "the fit of the continents on a smaller Earth appeared to be too good to be due to coincidence and required explaining". Shields concluded that "the Tethys Sea was much narrower than many suppose". Schmidt and Embleton, in commenting on the Early Proterozoic common apparent polar-wander paths for Africa, Australia, Greenland and North America demonstrated that the Proterozoic geological, geochronological and palaeomagnetic information can be satisfactorily resolved on a smaller Earth diameter.

Neiman considered the process of stretching and rupture of the core to be characteristic of the growth of continental zones. Perry was able to generate successive positions of spreading ridge, fracture zones, and magnetic anomaly lineation’s, and from these he was able to calculate the amount of radial expansion implied by each anomaly. Scalera used computerized cartographic methodology in an attempt to resolve the most fundamental problem confronting Earth expansion; that of spherical geometry varying with time. From the results of his research Scalera formed the opinion that "the Earth's history, as written and clearly readable on the bottom of the oceans, is not the history of plate tectonics but the history of a planet that has expanded".

Ott Christoph Hilgenberg

Stimulated by the pioneering work of Wegener on Continental Drift, Hilgenberg has been attributed as being the first model maker to fit all of the present-day land masses together to completely enclose a series of small papier-mâché globes and in 1933 his work was published in his classical book “Vom Wachsenden Erdball” [About the growing Earth]. On each of his globes (Figure 1) all oceans were progressively eliminated and the remaining continental crusts eventually enclosed the entire Earth on a globe at about 60 percent of the diameter of the present Earth.

Figure 1 Reproductions of Hilgenberg’s (1933) small Earth models, attributed to being the first small Earth models constructed. The size of the small globe to the left is approximately 60 percent of the present Earth shown on the right.

The main limitation to accepting Hilgenberg’s globes was the purely visual fit-together of continents across each of the oceans. Vogel (1990) commented that, “...though fairly exact in several regions, the totality of Hilgenberg’s result was not entirely convincing because, especially in the Indian, Pacific, and Arctic Ocean regions, numerous gaps and overlaps appeared between continental fragments.” Hilgenberg also gave no explanation for the creation of the oceans, nor an explanation as to what happens to the present-day volume of seawater on a much reduced radius Earth. More specifically, Hilgenberg’s reconstruction across the Atlantic was considered to be convincing, however difficulties were encountered in the Indian Ocean due to a greater dispersion of the continents and an uncertain initial position of India and Madagascar. The Pacific region was the most difficult to reconstruct, as workers to follow also found. Unlike the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, where the borders of these oceans retained their shapes, the Pacific borders were considered by Hilgenberg to have opened much earlier and hence the shape of these borders remained tectonically active throughout the continental dispersal times. To explain the expansion process Hilgenberg postulated that the mass of the Earth, as well as its volume, “...waxed with time.” Because of this stance and the several problems inherent in his reconstructions, Hilgenberg’s models were largely ignored and he has since received scant recognition for his efforts.

Klaus Vogel

Vogel (1983) published a comprehensive set of scaled small Earth models at various diameters, including a representation of a 55 percent reassembled globe inside a transparent plastic sphere of the present-day Earth (Figure 2). Each of Vogel’s models is unique in that his work coincided with the first publication of seafloor geological mapping. For the first time, this mapping enabled Vogel to accurately constrain both continental and seafloor crustal plate assemblages back in time, without having to resort to arbitrary fragmentation of the continents or to visual fitting-together of the various crustal plates.

Figure 2 Vogel’s (1983) small Earth models at various stages of increase in radius commencing on the far left with a continental reconstruction, without continental shelves, at 40 percent of the present Earth radius. A 55 percent radius model is also shown within a transparent sphere of the present day Earth at the right, demonstrating a radial motion of increase in Earth radius.

This is a very important point to take note of because all previous small Earth model makers, while having enough foresight and courage to remove seafloor crusts, were faced with the less than envious task of having to visually fit together the remaining continental crusts. This visual fitting was done without the benefit of being able to accurately constrain or position the crustal fragments relative to each other. Vogel demonstrated that, in general, the continents tended to move out radially from their ancient positions to reach their modern positions and concluded that this is a "...odd coincidence for any theory except that of expansion of the Earth." On Vogel’s models, the ancient supercontinents represent an assemblage of the modern continental crusts, which agree in principal with conventional tectonic theory, however, on Vogel’s models the continents are more tightly assembled on a reduced radius Earth model. Vogel considered that development of the oceans commenced during the early Mesozoic Era—starting around 200 million years ago—and breakup and dislocation of the continental fragments was considered to be due to a widening of the oceans, centred along the mid-oceanic crustal spreading zones. Vogel went further to consider the two hemispheres of the Earth as complementary counterparts, with no need for consideration of additional ancient oceans, or to arbitrary breakup or fragment the continents, as is required in a constant radius Earth plate tectonic model.

Vogel concluded from his modelling studies that:

  • At a reduced Earth radius of between 55 to 60 percent of the present radius, the continental outlines can be neatly fitted together to form a closed crust.
  • The positions of the different continents with respect to each other remain generally constant, with their separation caused by a radial expansion of the Earth.
  • The cause of the movements of continents has resulted from an accelerating increase in Earth radius with time, in accordance with seafloor spreading.

Vogel (1990) also made comment that "...an accordance of these three phenomena cannot be accidental," but must be due to "...processes operating from within the interior of the Earth resulting in Earth expansion." In addition to these observations, Vogel realized that it was theoretically possible for the continents, without their continental shelves, to fit together on an even smaller Earth globe calculated to be approximately 40 percent of the size of the present Earth. He based this observation on his comment that “...the continental shelves must have formed only after the brittle upper crust had broken into pieces.” This simple observation therefore alludes to the further potential that an increase in Earth radius process has been operating throughout earlier Earth history and has been active long before the time that historical modelling of the seafloor crusts suggests.

Plate Tectonics Objections for Expansion Tectonics

When comparing expansion tectonics to plate tectonics, there are some logical questions that arise given their differences.

Subduction

Subduction of crusts beneath continents is an artifact of the basic Plate Tectonic requirement for a static radius Earth. To maintain a Plate Tectonic static radius Earth the new oceanic crusts accumulating along the mid-ocean-spreading ridges must then be continuously disposed of elsewhere, displacing and recycling preexisting crusts into the mantle by subduction. Modern planetary studies have shown this process to be unique to planet Earth, and hence without subduction Plate Tectonics cannot exist.

In Plate Tectonic theory, subduction zones mark sites of convective down welling of the Earths crust as well as part of the upper mantle. Subduction zones are postulated to exist at convergent plate boundaries around the margins of the Pacific Ocean, where oceanic and continental crustal plates converge with other plates and sink below to depths of approximately 100 kilometres, thereby recycling crust, sediment and trapped water into the deep mantle.

On an Expansion Tectonic Earth subduction of between 5,000 to 15,000 kilometres of Pacific oceanic crust beneath North America, for instance, is unnecessary. All subduction-related observational data simply record the crustal interaction between adjoining thick continental crusts, and relatively thin oceanic crusts during ongoing change in surface curvature. As Earth radius increases with time the surface curvature of the Earth flattens, giving rise to crustal interaction and jostling of plates along their margins as they stretch and distort during gravity-induced flattening.

Supercontinents

On an Expansion Tectonic Earth, prior to the Triassic period, about 200 million years ago, the modern deep oceans did not exist. All continental crust was united to form a single supercontinent called Pangaea, enclosing the entire ancient Earth at about 3,200 kilometres radius – approximately 52% of the present Earth radius. Geographical studies show oceans prior to the Triassic period were then represented by a network of continental seas, with sediments deposited within continental basins masking all evidence of sea floor spreading. Exposed lands and varying coastal outlines prior to this time were similarly represented by the ancient Gondwana, Laurentia, Baltica and Laurussia supercontinents, and prior to that again by the ancient Rodinia supercontinent and smaller sub-continents.

Mountain building

In Plate Tectonics it is generally assumed that mountain building results from collision between ancient plates as they randomly move over the Earths surface under the influence of mantle convection currents. Researchers elsewhere have therefore concluded because Earth expansion is a radial process, and hence extensional, the process cannot explain the compression required for mountain building.

While seemingly logical from a Plate Tectonic perspective, it is illogical from an Expansion Tectonic perspective. As the Earth radius increases the continental crust must distort, bend, twist and turn as it continuously flattens and adjusts during change in surface curvature. During this ongoing gravity-induced crustal flattening process compression causes folding of the soft sediments within sedimentary basins, as well as faulting, volcanic intrusion and metamorphism (heating and compression of the rocks). When the continents began to break-up and disperse 200 million years ago, the edges of the newly formed continents then flexed and rose vertically to form the great escarpments and mountain ranges as the interiors collapse during ongoing changing surface curvature. This process is cyclical during ongoing increase in Earth radius, resulting in multiple and overlapping phases of mountain building, planation, sedimentation, uplift and erosion. What about past measurements of Earth radius?

Palaeomagnetic measurements were first used during the 1960s to early 1970s to establish an ancient Earth radius. This information was then used in an attempt to resolve debate once and for all on whether the Earth radius is increasing or not. The outcome of this research was the conclusion that Earth radius is not increasing and this has of course since swayed popular opinion towards Plate Tectonics, without fully appreciating the implications of the outcome.

While the various researchers went to great lengths to present quality data and sound methodology, it should be realized at that time there was very little agreement as to what a potential Earth expansion may or may not have been. What the researchers failed to comprehend was the significance of magnetic pole locations determined from conventional palaeomagnetic formulae. These are virtual pole locations, not actual locations. Because of this oversight they then made incorrect assumptions regarding application of the ancient latitude and colatitude to determine radius.

When the Expansion Tectonic magnetic pole locations for Africa are correctly used, the palaeomagnetic data, in contrast to published conclusions, conclusively quantify a Triassic Expansion Tectonic Earth radius. This, in conjunction with the diametrically opposed North and South Pole plots, represents definitive proof in support of an expanding Earth.

Geodetic measurements

Space geodetics is modern technology that uses satellites and radio telescopes to routinely measure the dimensions of the Earth and plate motions of the continents to subcentimetre accuracy. During the early 1990s, when enough ground stations were established to form a global network, the global excess in radius was found to be 18 mm/year – i.e. the measurements showed that the Earth was expanding by 18 mm/year. This value was considered to be “extremely high” when compared to expected deglaciation rates during melting of the polar ice-caps, estimated at less than 10 mm/year. The researchers in fact “expected that most … stations will have up-down motions of only a few mm/yr” and went on to recommend the vertical motion be “restricted to zero, because this is closer to the true situation than an average motion of 18 mm/yr”. This recommendation is now reflected in current mathematical solutions to the global radius, where global solutions are effectively constrained to zero.

These recommendations are justified from a constant Earth radius Plate Tectonic perspective. The 18 mm/year excess was considered to be an error in atmospheric correction, so was simply zeroed out. What must be appreciated is that without an acknowledgment of a potential increase in Earth radius NASA had no option but to correct this value to zero, and hence adopt a static Earth radius premise. From an Expansion Tectonic Earth perspective, however, the 18 mm/year excess equates with a present day value of 22 mm/year increase in Earth radius, determined independently from measurements of areas of sea floor spreading.

Expansion Tectonics Today

Empirical small Earth modeling studies more than adequately demonstrate that an increasing radius Expansion Tectonic Earth is indeed a viable and demonstrable tectonic process. Yet Expansion Tectonics today is continually thwarted by scientists and well-meaning peer reviewers to the point where publication of any of this empirical evidence is refused by the majority of publishers. This attitude and refusal is based on the explicate assumption that Earth radius has remained constant, or near constant over time, based initially on tenuous pre-1976 palaeomagnetic evidence. This conundrum continues to remain vehemently upheld yet scientifically untested in science today. The conundrum is also unknowingly being perpetuated by refusing to acknowledge, or to even allow scientific testing of the alternative proposal that Earth radius may in fact be increasing over time and hence global plate tectonic data may be better suited to an increasing radius Earth model.

By ignoring the empirical global evidence presented here and by continuing to accept any shortfalls conventional insistence imposes on the plate observational data, Dr Maxlow considers that this refusal is continuing to slow geologic progress by maintaining narrow, rigid viewpoints. This ignorance will then continue to perpetuate scientific conundrum by discouraging alternative research and convincing students and scientists alike that the main plate tectonic problems have all been resolved.

Irrespective of the infancy of this solar wind-related observational data and causal mechanism for an increase in Earth mass it is considered that there is more than enough justification to at least consider that the mass and radius of the Earth may in fact be increasing over time and hence begs the question as to what would happen to plate tectonics on an increasing radius Earth model? We can no longer justify rejection of this increasing Earth mass and radius proposal in favour of a constant radius Earth model without at least scientifically testing this new proposal using modern global observational data. Validation of this new proposal would then constitute a paradigm shift in conventional Plate Tectonic thinking.

Proposed Causal Mechanism

The fundamental problem that scientists and the general public have when modelling tectonic data on an increasing radius Expansion Tectonic Earth is comprehending where did the huge volume of material making up the seafloor crusts and underlying mantle go to when moving back in time in order to reassemble the continents? And, more importantly, where does this huge volume of material come from when moving forward in time? From this perceived problem, historically it would seem that it doesn’t matter how unique or empirical the constructed models or data modelling are, if an explanation for these observed phenomena cannot be given to the satisfaction of scientists and the general public alike then all increasing Earth radius theories must remain rejected in favour of a constant radius Earth theory.

It is fair to then ask the very pertinent question that if an acceptable causal mechanism is proposed, as palaeomagnetics did for the rejected continental drift theory during the 1950s, do we seriously consider this mechanism, test the new proposal in light of modern tectonic observational data, accept the empirical evidence in support of this proposal, and revise the current plate tectonic theory? Or do we continue to reject the observational data and acceptable mechanism and instead remain supportive of an outdated theory based on a pre-assumed mathematically constrained constant Earth radius premise?

In strong contrast to what was available 50 years ago when the historical Expanding Earth theory was initially rejected, the influence of charged solar wind-related particles emanating from the Sun on the near Earth environment has only been available since the Cluster II satellites were launched by the European Space Agency in year 2000. The new space-based observational data subsequently collected has highlighted the introduction of large quantities of solar wind-related electrons and protons into the Earth, propelled by the Earth’s magnetic field, which begs the question as to what is happening to these particles—the building blocks of all matter on Earth—once they enter the Earth?

The proposed causal mechanism for an increase in Earth mass and radius over time is based on, but not necessarily constrained to, the input of charged solar wind related electrons and protons originating from the Sun (Eichler, 2011; Maxlow, 2014). It is envisaged that magnetically charged electrons and protons enter the Earth’s magnetosphere and lower terrestrial layers primarily at the polar auroral zones and, to a lesser extent, as random lightning strikes during electrical storms. These magnetically charged particles are further attracted by conduction to the strongly magnetic core-mantle region of the Earth. The elevated core-mantle temperatures and pressures present enable the various particles to dissipate and recombine via nucleosynthesis as new matter within the upper core or lower mantle regions, in particular within the 200 to 300 kilometres thick D” region located at the base of the mantle directly above the core-mantle boundary.

It is envisaged that new matter is synthesised mainly within the reactive upper core or D” region of the lower mantle which in turn results in an increase in Earth mass. This growth of new matter and increase in mass causes the mantle to increase in volume. This increase in volume is then transferred to the Earth’s outer surface crust via two primary mechanisms.

  • Firstly, as an increase in Earth radius and;
  • Secondly, as laterally-directed crustal extension which is presently occurring on the surface of the Earth as extension along the full length of the mid-ocean-rift zones, within continental sedimentary basins, and within more localised mantle plume and igneous complex regions (Figure 23).

Figure 23 A schematic cross-section of the present-day Earth highlighting the influence of charged electrons and protons entering the Earth resulting in an increase in mass and radius over time (Maxlow, 2014).

The long-term potential effects of this causal process on the ancient Earth is summarised in Figure 24 showing a schematic cross section of three small Earth models: the Cambrian (around 540 million years ago), the Permian (around 250 million years ago), plus the present-day model repeated. These models are all to the same scale and based on the geological small Earth modeling studies. The schematic models mark times of significant changes to crustal development. These changes include changes to the aerial distribution of ancient sedimentary basins and continental seas during ongoing crustal extension throughout the Palaeozoic Era, plus breakup of the Pangaean supercontinent and formation of the modern continents and oceans during the late-Permian.

Figure 23 A schematic cross-section of the Cambrian, Permian and present-day Earth highlighting the effects of an Earth increasing its mass and radius over time. Core and mantle dimensions for the Permian and Cambrian models remain speculative only.

Prior to the Cambrian model is the 3.5 billion year interval of time known as the Precambrian Eon, which represents around 85 percent of known geological history. The rate of change in Earth mass, surface area, and radius during this extended period of time was extremely small. During that time, it is envisaged that matter formation within the primitive lower mantle and upper core was at an early stage of development, and the increase in Earth radius amounted to microns increasing to millimetres per annum. It is further envisaged that the limited size of the Precambrian Earth, along with the possibility of a much reduced magnetic field, may have limited the amount of solar particles entering the Earth hence limited the rate of increase in mass and radius over time.

The approximately 310 million year time interval between the beginning of the Cambrian to the end of the Permian Periods is the Palaeozoic Era and on an increasing radius Earth this era represents a time when Earth mass, radius and surface area gradually increased from a steady to steadily accelerating rate of change. Again, this increasing rate of change in mass and radius may have been the result of an increasing Earth magnetic field intensity, as well as increased changes to output of charged solar particles from the Sun. The end of the Permian Period is marked by a breakup of the Pangaean supercontinent to form the modern continents and opening of the modern oceans. The following Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras represent a time of dispersion of the modern continents, ongoing opening of the modern oceans, and a rapidly accelerating rate of change in Earth mass, radius, and surface curvature.

On small Earth models, for the first 3,750 million years of Earth history—to the end of the Permian Period 250 million years ago—all continental crusts remained united to form a single supercontinental landmass encompassing the entire ancient Earth. This supercontinental landmass was, in turn, partly covered by a network of relatively shallow continental seas. During this extended length of time the overall crustal extension and increase in surface area amounted to microns, increasing to tens of millimetres per annum spread over the entire surface area of the ancient Earth.

During these pre-Permian times volumetric mantle growth was manifested at surface as an increase in surface area within an interconnected network of crustal weakness—sedimentary basins and orogenic zones. This network was first established during the early-Archaean Eon and progressively extended in surficial area over time. Continental crustal extension was focussed within this network of crustal weakness initiating formation of low-lying sedimentary basins and relatively shallow seas. This crustal extension continued unabated until the late-Permian Period when the ability of the crust to continue to stretch and extend was physically exceeded.

During the late-Permian Period the ability for the crusts to stretch and extend within the Pangaean supercontinental crusts—shown as green coloured crusts on the Permian schematic model—was exceeded and rupturing of the Pangaean supercontinent was initiated. The Pangaean supercontinental crusts then ruptured and broke apart to form the modern continents and the modern oceans. The outcomes and growth history of this breakup and opening process, extending from the early-Jurassic to the present-day, is now preserved within the seafloor crustal geology shown in modern publications, such as the Geological Map of the World (CGMW & UNESCO, 1990).

On an increasing Earth radius model all geological phenomena now seen at surface, such as basin formation, folding, faulting, orogenesis, magmatic intrusion, mountain formation, crustal extension, continental break-up and so on, are ultimately caused by the volumetric growth in Earth mass and radius over time. These phenomena are particularly related to changes in relief of surface curvature of continental and seafloor crusts as a direct result of the subsequent increase in Earth radius and surface area over time.

References

  1. Hurrell, Stephen. "Dinosaurs on the Expanding Earth", 2011