Expansion tectonics

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The Crustal Age map from NOAA is considered by expansion tectonics as the most important geological map in modern geology

Expansion tectonics is a term coined by Australian geologist Dr. James Maxlow to describe the study of an expanding and growing earth and other celestial bodies as compared to the standard plate tectonics] which hypothsizes a fixed radius, constant mass earth. Expansion tectonics states that the crustal plates broke apart around 200 million years ago and remain practically intact in their shapes and sizes and that all the continents fit together on a smaller orb.

Introduction

When presenting Expansion Tectonics a number of very valid and pertinent questions invariably arise which must be addressed. In doing so, however, it must be remembered Expansion Tectonics is based solely on the best explanation of existing empirical geological evidence. It is not a theory seeking physical support. It is rather a concept proposed which best fits all existing physical geologic data in a much superior manner than does the Plate Tectonic approach. To some extent it’s like a laboratory experiment wherein an unexpected observation is made that is not explained using existing physics. It then begs for extended theoretical models to explain the newly discovered physical facts.

Ancient Magnet Poles

The published ancient magnetic pole information (the location of ancient magnetic poles established from measuring the remnant magnetism in iron-rich rocks) in particular provides conclusive evidence in support of Expansion Tectonics. When this magnetic pole data is plotted on Expansion Tectonic models it demonstrates that all pole data plot as diametrically opposed north and south poles for each model.

These models show that the ancient North Pole was located in eastern Mongolia-China throughout the Precambrian and Paleozoic Eras. As the continents slowly migrated south, during subsequent increase in Earth radius, there was an apparent northward polar wander through Siberia to its present location within the Arctic Ocean. Similarly, the ancient Precambrian and Paleozoic South Pole was located in west central Africa, and, as the continents slowly migrated north, there was an apparent southward polar wander along the South American and West African coastlines to its present location in Antarctica.

The locations of these magnetic poles, as well as the derived ancient equators, independently confirm the model reconstructions shown in Figure 3 and again suggest that Expansion Tectonics is indeed a viable process.

Ancient Geography

The ancient geography of the Earth forms the basis for defining the inter-relationships of exposed continents, intervening seaways, mountains and crustal movements, and enables the conventional Pangaea, Gondwana, Laurentia, Baltica, Laurussia and Rodinia supercontinents to be quantified on an Expansion Tectonic Earth. The ancient coastlines, when plotted on Expansion Tectonic models, show that large Panthallassa, Tethys and Iapetus Oceans are not required during reconstruction. This is because on an Expansion Tectonic Earth all modern oceans are removed and continents are assembled as a single continental crust. These inferred oceans are instead replaced by smaller Panthallassa, Tethys and Iapetus Seas located on or between the ancient continents.

The early Panthallassa and Iapetus Seas developed during the Early Permian to Early Jurassic periods (260 to 165 million years ago) and initiated as shallow sedimentary basins within the present north west Pacific and North Atlantic Ocean regions respectively. These then progressively opened and extended throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras as the modern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. In contrast, the Tethys Sea had its origins during the Early Precambrian Era as a continental sea located within what is now Europe and Asia. This sea then progressively enlarged and extended in area during the Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras during crustal extension and subsequent opening of the modern oceans.

Changes in sea-level on an Expansion Tectonic Earth is then shown to occur in response to climatic change, as well as a shift in the distribution of continental seas, to crustal movements, mountain building, erosion, opening of the post-Permian modern oceans and production of new water at the mid-ocean-ridges. These changes all modified the ancient coastal outlines and resulted in a change in the exposed continental land areas. This is confirmed by the distribution of climate-dependant sedimentary rocks such as limestone reefs, and the distribution of climate-dependant marine and terrestrial fossil species. Reconstructions of the conventional Pangaea, Gondwana and Rodinia supercontinents and smaller sub-continents on an Expansion Tectonic Earth demonstrate that, instead of being the result of random dispersion-amalgamation or collisional events, each continental assemblage is progressive, and represents an evolutionary crustal-forming process. The distinguishing feature of continents constructed on each Expansion Tectonic model is the inter-relationship of continental sedimentary basins, the network of continental seas and network of crustal movements. The variation of each of these in time has resulted in changes to the distribution of exposed continental land. Supercontinent configuration is then defined by a progressive extension of continental sedimentary basins, by ongoing crustal movements, and changes in sea-levels as the modern oceans opened and rapidly increased in area to the present-day.

Ancient Biogeography

On an Expansion Tectonic Earth the locations of fossilized fauna and flora can be used to illustrate their distribution in relation to the ancient lands and seas, and once again to confirm the established climatic zones as well as the poles and equator. The distribution of various marine fauna, such as the Cambrian and Ordovician trilobites for instance, on an Expansion Tectonic Earth demonstrates the ease and simplification of migration routes and their development during the Palaeozoic Era. Barriers to the migration of trilobites, as well as other related species on an Expansion Tectonic Earth are then simply seen as limited to deep marine restrictions and, to a limited extent, on latitude and climate extremes.

Triassic to Cretaceous dinosaurs, when plotted on Expansion Tectonic Earth models show dinosaur distributions are clustered within three distinct provinces, which coincide with the distribution of ancestral Permian reptiles; their ancient ancestors. These include distributions clustered in the European to Mediterranean region, distributions clustered in central and eastern North America and, distributions clustered in adjacent South Africa and southern South American regions, with links to India. Isolated related distributions also occur in east Australia, south China, and western South America.

The distribution of dinosaurs and ancestral Permian reptiles on an Expansion Tectonic Earth demonstrates the close links between Permian, Triassic and Jurassic species. This link was then disrupted during the early Permian during the initiation of continental break-up, and similarly during the Cretaceous as the various seas merged and sea levels began to rise. As the continents progressively broke up and dispersed there was a marked disruption of established climatic zones, as well as the feeding habitats and migration routes of each endemic species.

The extinction of the dinosaurs is a contentious issue. On an Expansion Tectonic Earth the Cretaceous period coincides with a period of enlargement of continental seas accompanied by a rise in sea-level, an increase in the size of the modern oceans and progressive disruption to climate. Sea levels peaked on the continents during the Late Cretaceous followed by a rapid draining of continental seas as the modern oceans continued to open.

Expansion Tectonic Earth models suggest there may have been two or more separate oceans existing during the Mesozoic era, with the possibility of separate sea levels. Rifting and merging of these oceans coincides precisely with faunal and floral extinction events at the end of both the Triassic and Cretaceous periods. This suggests the cause of the dinosaur extinction, which incidentally occurred over a period of 8 to 10 million years, may be linked with periods of relatively rapid sea level change some 65 million years ago, rather than a speculated asteroidal impact event as currently proposed. The ancient Permian Glossopteris fern is a common fossil in coals throughout the southern hemisphere and has traditionally been used to define the ancient Gondwana supercontinent. The known distribution of Glossopteris ferns is centred on localities in South Africa and adjacent India. During the Permian period East Antarctica straddled the equator adjacent to South Africa, which was surrounded by occurrences of Glossopteris flora in Australia, West Antarctica and India, suggesting Glossopteris flora may have also been extensive beneath the present East Antarctica ice-cap.

The distribution of Permian Glossopteris ferns, when plotted on Expansion Tectonic models, straddles the ancient equator and ranges from high-northern to high-southern latitudes. This suggests Glossopteris ferns were tropical to cool temperate species, confirmed by the fossil evidence, which shows a Gondwana climate commencing with an ice-age and passing through a cold, but wet temperate to warm temperate climate during the Late Paleozoic Era.

These ancient biogeographic examples, while limited, briefly illustrate the ease and simplification of migration and development of all faunal and floral species on an Expansion Tectonic Earth. The inter-relationships of global and provincial distributions are then intimately maintained without the need for complex conventional continental assemblage-dispersal requirements.

During continental break-up and opening of the modern oceans on an Expansion Tectonic Earth, the distributions of species and migration routes were disrupted, forcing species endemic to the various regions to interact, extend their boundaries, fragment or simply become extinct with time. The timing of ocean development in many of these areas is also reflected in the changes in sea-level, facilitating marine faunal migration by extending and expanding immigration routes and moderating climatic differences.

Ancient Climate

The ancient climate on Expansion Tectonic Earth models can be investigated by plotting the distribution of selected climate-dependant rocks and comparing the distribution patterns with the location of established ancient poles and equators. Correlation of coal swamps, thick sandstone sequences and glacial rocks are excellent indicators of wet climates, while dry climates are indicated by evaporates, such as salt deposits, and equatorial regions by limestone reefs.

The glacial record shows four major glacial eras, including the Early Proterozoic Era, the Late Proterozoic Era, the Early and Late Paleozoic Era and the Late Cenozoic Era. The distribution of glacial deposits on an Expansion Tectonic Earth is also useful in checking the location of established magnetic poles and equators plotted from magnetic data. The distribution of many of these Precambrian marine glacial deposits, many of which occur in conjunction with equatorial limestone and iron-rich rocks, is an enigma for Plate Tectonic reconstructions. In contrast, on an Expansion Tectonic Earth the relatively short pole to equator distances existing during this time allowed sea-ice to readily float into equatorial regions, depositing glacial rock debris amongst the existing warm climatic rocks as it melted.

The distribution of Early and Late Paleozoic glacial deposits coincides with a South Pole located in west central Africa, with isolated mountainous ice-centres located in Europe, Australia and South America. A northward shift in climate zonation and an absence of a permanent north polar ice-cap is a prominent feature of glacial, carbonate and coal distributions at that time. This northward shift suggests an Earth rotational axis, inclined to the pole of the ecliptic, was well established by the beginning of the Paleozoic Era and has remained at a similar inclination to the present-day.

The distribution of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic oil and gas resources coincides with the development of major continental and marginal basin settings. A broad zonation of deposits is evident from this distribution which straddles the established ancient equator and extends from low-southern to mid-northern latitudes. This distribution again suggests a northward shift in climatic zonation.

When viewed in context with global and local sea-level changes, oil and gas development coincides with periods of rising sea-levels and maximum surficial areas of continental seas. The Cretaceous in particular coincides with a period of post-Late Paleozoic glacial melting, a rapid opening of the modern oceans, generally warm climatic conditions and rapid biotic diversification.

The Early to Late Cretaceous distribution of coal shows two broad temperate belts located north and south of the ancient equator. On an Expansion Tectonic Earth a latitudinal shift in coal deposition through time is reflected in the rapid opening of each of the modern oceans, and similarly in the northward migration of continents during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras. The predominance of coal deposits in the northern hemisphere is here attributed to the greater extent of landmass influencing rainfall and to the extent of remnant continental basins suitable for coal formation.

The distribution of all latitude dependent rocks on Expansion Tectonic Earth models is shown to coincide precisely with the ancient equators established from magnetic pole data. In each case a distinct latitudinal zonation paralleling the palaeoequator is evident, and a distinct northward shift in climatic zonation consistently suggests that an inclined Earth rotational axis, inclined to the pole of the ecliptic, was well established during the Palaeozoic persisting to the Recent.